Explain Aristotle's Notion of Substance Research Paper

Explain Aristotle's Notion of Substance - Research Paper Example It will be argued along with Leszl's claim that substance is more than just a category for logic, and that it is really an argument for the nature of being. There is no separating logic from ontology in Aristotle when it comes to substance and it with regard to ontology, substance is that which is constant set against everything else which changes. The context in which "first substance" emerges, concerns the "combination of words, expressions and phrases." (Categories, 1a16). Aristotle first divides these kategoriai of words, expressions and phrases by distinguishing how some predicates are are "present" in a subject, while others are "parts within a whole" (Categories, 1a20), which is marked by a difference between something "which cannot exist apart from the subject referred to", such as an attribute like "whiteness" (Categories, 1a24-1b2), and something which can be attributed but which is not found phenomenally "in a subject", such as predicating the species "man" to an individua l man, as a subject. Aristotle adds that there may also be predicates which can be asserted of a subject, and yet which are neither present physically, or related in a genus-individual relation. These kategoriai he raises as particular or individual expressions with a direct object, or direct reference: "this or that man or horse, for example" (Categories, 1b4), which is a form of predication related to both substance, and the mind, and will be outlined in more detail in the section dealing with De Anima. At this point in the Categories, Aristotle is explicit about this instance of substance as being "primary" (Categories, 1b11-13), and it is therefore a topic which is not a question for the agenda at hand, which are the rules of "combination of words, expressions and phrases"-- or, "secondary substance" (Categories, 1b14). He proceeds at this point to establish further specifications for the rules of predication, such as predicate of a subject, is also a predicate of a substance(Ca tegories, 1b9-15, 1b21-25), and how some predicates may help to differentiate genus's, but not species (Categories, 1b16-20), and finally how "each uncombined word or expression" will be determined by a particular form of possible predicate. Having covered the possible predicates in terms of their forms, relation via genus, species, and how whether the predicate is necessarily "present" in a subject or not, he addresses the criteria itself which determines all of these possible combination's and types of combination's, which is the first important step into substance-- a step which more clearly divides primary from secondary substances, and a division which can be characterized as a division between substance (primary) and subject (secondary). Aristotle gives the simple example that "`Footed', `two-footed' and `winged'" are attributes which are true of genus, but which do not allow for the distinction of a particular species, given that many species possess these attributes.(Categor ies, 1b16-20). Primary substance is more a topic proper to the Physics and Metaphysics, given that actual being and actual beings are the focus, not, as in the Categories with how these beings can be "expressed". As we shall see, the Metaphysics addresses

Theory Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Theory Research - Essay Example e research the social organisation theory and previous research that have been undertaken with regard to this theory, theories related to the social disorganisation discussed in this paper include the gang theory, the concentric zone theory, the cultural transmission theory and the differential social organisation concept. The Social disorganisation theory depicts that crime occurs as a result of failure by the society to organise its institutions, Assumptions of the social disorganisation theory on crime are that crime is caused by social factors, individuals in the society are unable to resist temptation and that the social structure in the society is unstable, according to the assumptions when crime occurs people blame the perpetrators and don’t blame on social disorganisation in the society, for this reason therefore it is almost impossible to identify the causes of crime. Robert Sampton (1997) developed the collective efficacy and social capital concepts, according to him collective efficacy referred to the maintenance of order in the society while social capital referred to the informal networks ties that exist in a society. He stated that a society must first achieve social capital in order to achieve collective efficacy, for this reason therefore he supported the social disorganisation theory by stating that modern societies lack social capital and therefore has not achieved social efficacy and this explains the existence of crime. The gang theory is also another theory that explains social disorganisation in the society. In this theory the various characteristics of gang behaviour include solidarity, shared traditions and cooperation. The theory depicts that gang’s start as groups and collected in certain areas of a society especially area between developed areas, for this reason the presence of gangs can explain the existence of high crime rates in certain regions. The concentric zone theory also explain the existence of crime due to social

Men in the female dominated nursing profession

Men in the female dominated nursing profession The existing literature in nursing reviewed, and is mostly based on the reason for the shortage of men in nursing, and their experiences in a female dominated profession. Most of the articles obtained in this literature review were from the databases of Pub-Med, MEDLINE, Elsevier, Bio Med Central, SAGE pub, and Google Scholar. The key search words were caring, gender, men, nurses, nursing, stereotypes, non-traditional jobs, and advantages. The data obtained for this literature review span from 1964 to 2010. Little is it known about the experiences of men in nursing in Malta. However, Mr. Joseph Camilleri (1964) wrote about History of nursing in Malta stating that the knights themselves performed the nursing care exclusively, to the same gender. The literature review presented is aimed to explore the advantages and disadvantages that male nurses experience while performing their caring roles in nursing. 2.2 Difficulties male nurses encounter in a traditionally female profession 2.2.1 Introduction Nursing became predominately a female profession in the late 19th century. Though Florence Nightingale made major contributions in the nursing profession, she was greatly involved in excluding men from this profession by affirming that nursing was a discipline for female. She did work hard in establishing nursing as a laudable profession for respectable women, ignoring the past indispensable contributions made by men (Black and Germaine-Warner, 1995). Nightingale saw the males task restricted to physical jobs like moving or lifting patients and never appreciated their caring task. Besides, the Industrial Revolution largely influenced the way out of men from caring professions, such as nursing. During this period, the widely acknowledged professions for men were business, technology and science. Men pursued medicine and women pursued nursing (Black and Germaine-Warner, 1995). Men entering the nursing profession cross the conventional lines of gender. As a result, their masculinity becomes an issue. Over time, masculinity has been defined by the roles men perform (Connell, 1995). The concept, notion or idea of masculinity deters men from entering women-dominated professions, such as nursing, but men are silent on the entry of women in the mens traditional professions, such as medicine and technology. Williams (1995), Table 2.1 conducted in-depth interviews with 76 men and 23 female who work in predominantly female professions as social workers, elementary school teachers, nurses, and librarians. Through deft interpretation of her interviewees words, it was found that male nurses and those in other female-conquered fields frequently emphasize their masculinity and try as much as possible to avoid socializing with their women colleagues. This is argued by Williams as the only way of legitimising their working in the womens conventional professions. An exploratory study, conducted by Heikes (1991),Table 2.1 based on in-depth interviews with fifteen male nurses, showed that male nurses saw themselves in the abnormal position of belonging to two very dissimilar groups. For instance, in the nursing profession, men are taken as a minority group tagged as male nurse, whilst in a broader society, men fit in the dominant social group where they are expected to be successful and excelling in their profession. Male nurses are therefore a unique type of minority group in the sense that they are either a minority of the principal social faction or minority of majority. This disparity in grouping (minority-majority) stresses and discriminates men in nursing more than other tokens. Furthermore, the study indicates that many of the disadvantages male nurses experience (e.g., homosexual stigma, gender stereotypes) originate from outside of the nursing profession (Heikes, 1991, p.398). According to theoretical research of the literature, carried out by Evans (2004), Table 2.1, a man associated with the nursing profession compromises his reputation plus social status in patriarchal culture. Also, male nurses experience the stigma of working in a female-dominated profession, and they are seen by society as challenging the conventional roles of men (Lammi and Kauppinen-Toropainen, 1993). Evans argues (1997,p.228), citing Mangan (1994), that stigmatising labels imply that men who do nursing are different from other men, isolating them as deviants who are odd or homosexual. Furthermore, while analysing the data from semi-structured interviews with eight men nurses on their experiences in nursing, Evans (2002) noted that the male nurses are exposed to rejection and suspicion as nurturers and caregivers due to the perception that men and women caring styles were not the same. Touch was one expression of caring that all participants identified as central, to their practice as nurses, and potentially dangerous because it can be misinterpret, which makes them vulnerable caregivers. Similarly, men in nursing are likely to be labelled gay. Pringle (1993) asserted that any feminised profession is believed to attract homosexual men, be it fashion, hairdressing, or even nursing. A study link appears to be drawn between sexual preferences and gender. Savage (1987) suggested that a male nurse is always tagged with a predominant image of being homosexual. He further supported this suggestion by asserting that men entering the nursing profession have purportedly failed in other manhood professions and that the only opening for them remains in the womens world. Harding, (2007), Table, 2.1 in the social constructionist study conducted among 18 New Zealand men employed in general nursing found that majority of men in nursing are heterosexual. However, public perception is still that most male nurses are gay. This stereotype persists only in general nursing because it was constructed as feminine and abnormal for men, whereas psychiatric nursing was constructed as normal for men (Harding, 2007, p.641) Male nurses are believed to be further weakened, emasculated or ineffectual by resorting on womens traditional jobs in which they are anticipated to exhibit feminine qualities, such as being gentle, caring and subordinate to women. Thus, labelling of men in the nursing profession as homosexuals makes them feel remorseful, outcast and discouraged. Pringle (2002) asserted that in most cultures, male homosexuality is seen as an infringement of masculinity and a denigration of mens mythical power. He further asserted that as homosexuality nibbles at masculinity, it deteriorates the gender order. As earlier mentioned, up to this very moment nursing is extremely dominated by women and this translates to a number of personal and professional challenges to men entering the field. For example, several male nurses have reported about physicians and head nurses placing less trust in them. Besides, male nursing students encounter discrimination from physicians, practicing nurses and the general public (Kelly et al., 1996). Female nurses frequently request male colleagues for assistance in turning and lifting patients, thereby emphasising physical strength and not professional expertise. It is all very frequent for male nurses or students to find themselves unwanted in delivery rooms, prenatal clinics and other related settings that male physicians have liberated access (Black and Germaine-Warner, 1995). Another difficult issue male nurses or students encounter is a mistrust emanating from their patients. Literature has it that a considerable number of patients become so violent or hostile in the presence of a male nurse and will be uncomfortable submitting to intimate medical procedures. This is a difficult position to encounter, and several male nurses usually become frustrated when patients are not willing to confide in them because of fear or underserved disrespect (Fisher, 1999). Also, mounting study indicates that men in female-dominated careers, such as catering, nursing and fashion, encounter gender bias, elevated rates of job linked to stress as well as job discrimination (Amour, 2003). Table 2.1 The distribution of studies regarding the difficulties male nurses encounter in traditionally female profession Author/s and setting Sample and sampling method Research design/Instrument Significant findings Evans, J. (2004), Canada à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Theoretical research of literature review on men nurses in Canada, Britain U.S.A. between 1900 and 2003. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Statistics, CINHAL, Pub Med, and Sociological Abstract databases à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Failure to recognize mens participation in nursing leaves male nurses without historical background, almost invisible; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Gender boundaries are negotiable during wars and acute nursing shortage, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Men in nursing tend to choose areas of specialization that are more masculine, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Mens career path takes on traditional masculine role that seeks power and influence Evans,J .(2002), Canada à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢8 male nurses from community health nursing, medical-surgical, and general duty nursing, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢6 married, 1 with partner, and 1 gay; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Age from late 20s to mid 50s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Two rounds of semi-structured interviews à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢The stereotype of men as sexual aggressors is compounded by the stereotype that men nurses are gay, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢These stereotypes sexualise men nurses touch, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Men nurses are subject of accusation of inappropriate behaviour Harding,T. (2007), Norway à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Discourse analysis of data from existing texts, and 2 films on men, nursing and masculinity, and interviews conducted in 2003-2004, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢18 participants, 11 self-identified as gay, 6 heterosexual, and 1 no information on sexuality, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢The workplace included clinical nursing, education, administration, midwifery, mental health and armed forces à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Purposive and snow ball sampling à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Loosely structured interviews with broad, open-ended questions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Three themes emerged which characterized the participants experiences: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Persistence of the stereotype of the gay male nurse, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Meeting homophobia in the work place, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Strategies to protect ones homosexuality like working as psychiatric nurses. Heikes, J. (1991), U.S.A. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 15 male RNs from nine different hospitals in Austin, Texas; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Age range 26-43 years; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Working experience ranged from 1-14 years à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢In-dept interviews based on interview questions about the concrete work experiences, and non-work interactions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Four role stereotypes emerged from the data: Ladder-climber, Troublemaker, and He-man, traditionally masculine traits, and homosexual, which is imposed on male nurses from the outside; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Male tokens are expected to excel in the occupational or public sphere; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Respondents reported social isolation in order to maintain higher status and to reduce the possibility of them being labelled un masculine or homosexual. Williams,C. (1995), U.S.A. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢76 men and 23 women in four occupations: nursing, librarian, elementary school teacher, and social worker; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢From 1985-1991 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Snowball sampling à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Age range from 20-66 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢In-dept interview, with the interview questionnaire consisted of several open ended four broad questions on motivation to enter the profession, experience in training, career progression, and general about mens status. (p.229) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Face to face interview à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Cultural and social stereotypes about masculinity pressure men to raise in a glass escalator to the highest paid and most prestigious nursing specialities; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Men encouraged to advance by an invisible pressure; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Men develop strategies to present themselves as masculine, and superior to female colleagues 2.3 Advantages and disadvantages perceived in males nursing career 2.2.1 Introduction Male nurses belong to a minority group. Approximately 3.1 percent of nurses in Canada and the United States are male, about 8.77 percent in the United Kingdom, (Rott, et.al (2008), and in Malta 28 percent (Council for nurses and midwifes, 2010). According to Evans (1997), Table 2.2, women working in mens traditional professions normally encounter hostile working environment. However, men working in female-dominated professions may never encounter such disadvantages. That said, the focal rationale for drawing men to nursing is to enhance the status and the prestige of the profession as a whole. It remains debatable whether this will really work or not. Several researchers and scholars have argued that the rationale puts a noteworthy pressure on men to salvage the nursing profession, whereas others believe that allowing men in the profession merely raises the position of masculine gender in the society (Evans, 1997). Male as well encompass an advantage in the nursing profession due to traditional stereotype that men are always the breadwinners of the families. In most societies, women usually take primary tasks for childcare and housework, giving men a distinct benefit. For instance, there is a devastating perception in the United States and most Anglo-Saxon world that women are less devoted to their work than men. This is largely due to the unfair division of labour inside the household. As such, even in female professions, men remain with this unequal advantage over women (Williams, 1995). In addition to, Abrahamsen (2004), Table 2.2, argues when men obtain leading positions more often than women, this can be result of favourism of men (p.35). A quantitative, non-experimental descriptive study ,conducted over twenty years, in order to identify constructions of masculinity, and career development, showed that twenty years after graduation, ,70% of male nurses were in the leadership position, and away from somatic wards. They moved to a sector which offered better income , which suggests that salary is important when male nurses move within different parts of the healthcare sector ( Abrahamsen, 2004). Additionally, the major functions in nursing accentuate technical knowledge, leadership and devotion to work, all these are perceived as being masculine traits. Consideration to detail and showing of emotions that are usually characteristics of females are not credited as good skills of leadership. What is more, male nurses are more social with doctors than their female counterparts. Since men feel they lack much in common with their female counterparts, they prefer talking about vehicles and sports with other men, especially male doctors. This in itself provides advantages for career projections, as doctors begin to appreciate male nurses as being competent just like their women colleagues (Bush, 1976). The transversal study of Dassen, T., Nijhuis,J.N. Philipsen, H. (1990), Table 2.2 which was based on a National Survey among intensive-care (IC) nurses in The Netherlands, showed that male IC-unit nurses consider IC-nursing to be a medical rather than a nursing activity in order to upgrade their own profession into a kind of medical profession. Due to an over-representation of men in technical wards, distribution of labour among male and female nurses is taking place according to traditional sex -specific patterns where male nurses stand a better chance of being promoted to higher positions. In addition, the study revealed that 50% of male nurses wish to become head of a nursing ward which proves that male nurses are more oriented towards profesionalization than female nurses. On the other hand, Kanters (1977) notion of tokenism supposed that the numerical underrepresentation of individuals in an occupation, particularly those classified by gender, ethnicity or race, will lead to discriminatory treatment. Therefore, for all minority groups, a given profession will always experience negative job impacts. According to Kanter, members of minority group are likely to achieve less in the working environment than members of the majority group. However, Williams (1995) contravened that when men are seen as minority group in the nursing profession, they normally use their dominant gender privilege to rapidly rise to the topmost hierarchy (Saville-Smith and James, 1994). Conversely, nursing is seen by several people as a feminine profession and is therefore devalued in male-conquered patriarchal society. This profession is always stereotyped as having the characteristics of caring, nurturing, submission and dependence. These traits accredited to nursing contrast with the alleged male characteristics of dominance, aggression and strength and thus male nurses usually isolate themselves from their female nurses as a way of expressing the notion of masculinity (Heikes, 1991). Moreover, when an individual forms an identity which is incompatible with the expectations of the society, people usually become uncomfortable and uncertain on how to behave. In most societies all over the world, nurses are perceived as women, and thus it is quite difficult for individuals to know how to interrelate with male nurses. They find it too unusual why a man would decide on a career dominated by a recessive sex. This is a major disadvantage to men in nursing and most of th em are indeed deterred from the profession by assuming that other individuals will see them as unmanly (Bagilhole and Cross, 2002). Table 2.2 The distribution of studies regarding the advantages and disadvantages perceived in males nursing career Author/s and setting Sample and sampling method Research design/ Instrument Significant findings Abrahamsen, D. (2004) Norway à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢1450 male and female nurses who completed training in 1977 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Norwegian survey of nurses undertaken at the end of 1998 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢After a year from graduating, 10% of male and female, both were in leadership position, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢After twenty years later, 70% of men were in leading position away from somatic wards and bed-ridden patients, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Better income was moved male nurses within different parts of the healthcare system. Dassen,T.W.N.et.al., (1990) The Netherlands à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢1960 male and female nurses, data borrowed from the Intensive Care Association, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 960 returned the forms by post, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢R.R.49% à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Survey, questionnaire sent by post; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢There is an over-presentation of men in technical wards, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢10% of the male nurses reported having chosen to work in an IC-unit, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢50% of the male nurses wish to become head of a nursing ward compared to only 15% of female nurses. Evans,J. (1997) Canada à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Theoretical literature review à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Not stated à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Even in the female dominated profession , patriarchal society enables men to obtain dominant position, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Marital status for men has significant career advantage, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Men nurses have more university degrees compared to women nurses, 2.4 Why men choose nursing as a career 2.4.1 Introduction Most men choose nursing for the similar reasons women choose nursing. They are goaded by the desire to care for patients (Boughn, 2001). Besides, men have numerous practical reasons that include career opportunity, job security, job flexibility and stable income. Conventionally, men tend to prefer active and challenging fields of nursing, such as cardiac care units, trauma units, emergency departments, cardiac care units, intensive care units, anaesthesiology or flight nursing, among others. Men are often attracted to the technical aspects of acute care specialties and always motivated by the challenges created by the medical instruments utilised in those units. However, a pilot study investigating the motivations and experiences of 42 males in the nursing profession conducted by Whittock M. Leonard L. (2003), Table 2.3 showed that a major factor that attracted men in nursing was influence of parents, specially mothers, employed in nursing or other healthcare professions. On the other hand, this finding was not true for all interviewees. A similar, qualitative, study exploring what motivates Israeli men to choose nursing as their profession was conducted by Romem, P. Anson, O. ( 2005), Table 2.3. Self- administered questionnaires which included 52-items were drawn up, in order to determine the social characteristics of male nurses, and their motives in choosing the profession. These questionnaires were distributed to all registered nurses, 137 female and 123 male, in three general and three psychiatric hospitals. The results of the study show that an early exposure to the profession, as well as the ethnic background are prominent factors that motivate men to choose nursing. Job security, career opportunities and salary, also play an important role (Romem, Anson,2005). On the other hand, men in nursing are not taking leading positions in the health care system due to their social origins. Nevertheless, there has been worry that several men may just look at the nursing profession as a facilitator to other masculine professions such as medicine and that they may not take nursing as their long lasting career. This is because of low pay and perceived low status of nursing as it is always associated with a lesser sex in the society (Williams, 1989). This anxiety was borne out in 2002 by a study conducted in the University of Pennsylvania. The study was based on the Analysis of the 1992-2000 the National Survey of Registered Nurses, the nations most extensive and comprehensive statistics on registered nurses with current licenses to practice in US. In this study it was found that about 7.5% of new-fangled male nurses left this female-dominated profession within four years after graduating from nursing school. This was a higher percent compared to the 4.1% of female nurses who deserted the nursing profession in the same period (Solchalski, 2002). While Sochalski (2002), Table 2.3, in her research underscored the need to determine the reasons for the exodus of nurses, a study of Rajapaksa Rothstein (2009), Table 2.3, showed that men and women nurses who left nursing had some similar and some different reasons for their actions. The sample consisted of 1,589 registered nurses who were employed in other occupations at the time of the National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses 2000. Gender was the primary independent variable, although the vast majority of respondents in this study were female ( 93,5%). At the time of the survey , 63.2% of the respondents were working full time at their new jobs, and 36.8% were working part time. The survey consisted of a self-administered forced-choice questionnaire that included gender, participants age, working age, income, marital status, educational level and race. The results revealed that both men and women left nursing for better working hours and more rewarding positions elsewhere, and whilemen nurses do not leave nursing for other occupations because of dissatisfaction with their roles as nurses, but rather because of their perceptions of the low financial rewards associated with nursing (Rajapaksa, et al 2009, p.206). A number of issues face majority of men who do decide to remain in nursing. These men frequently feel an emotional reaction, a role strain that might be felt by any individual in a profession which has a social formation conquered by members of the opposite sex. For those men raised in the culture of American andocentricism, not used to anti-male gender inequity, this may create discontent and anxiety. Increasingly, though, men today fill majority of leadership tasks in the nursing profession. 2.3 Table The distribution of the studies exploring why men choose nursing as a career Author/s and setting Sample and sampling method Research design/Instrument Significant findings Rajapaksa,S. Rothstein,W. (2009) U.S.A à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Secondary Analysis of the National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses 2000, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Sample 1.589 RNS who were employed in other occupations à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢90% white, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Age of the respondents 48.49 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Average number of years worked as an RN was 8.73 years à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢The data used were the General Public Use Files, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Self-administered forced choice questionnaire à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Three main reasons for leaving nursing: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢46% respondents stated that the working hours where more convenient in the new job, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 47,2% found current job more rewarding, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢35% stated that they left for better salaries Romem,P.Anson,O. (2005) Israel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢260 participants, 123 male and 137 registered nurses in 3 general and 3 psychiatric hospitals during 1997-1998. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢RR 74% à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Mean age was 37 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Majority of the respondents were married à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 52-item questionnaire based on in-dept interviews with 5 male and 5 female RN à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Nursing appeals to groups out-of the stream (immigrants and ethnic minorities); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Israeli men in nursing do not occupy leading positions in health care; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Men are absent from the nursing Administration. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢78% of the male in this study belong to immigrants or ethnic minority. Sochalski,J. (2002) U.S.A. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Data Analysis of 1992-2000 National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢The number of respondents in 2000 questionnaire was 35,579. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢R.R.71.7% à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Data from National Survey of Registered Nurses; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Questionnaire à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ New nurses at the beginning of their career show job satisfaction, 75% of women among new nurses were satisfied with their job, and only 67% men, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢7.5% of new male nurses left their job within four years, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Male nurses are leaving profession twice the rate of women à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢136,000 nurses are working in other professions. Whittock,M. Leonard,L. (2003) U.K. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢1.Literature review on males in nursing from historical and present day perspective, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢2. Pilot study on what prevents from considering a nursing career à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢30 pre registration male nurses, 30 post registration male nurses, 10 ex-nurses males. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢The sample to date 42 male nurse of different ethnicities Mean age 33,64 years à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢In dept semi-structured interview limited to 1 hour duration; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Face to face interview à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Interviewees have expressed the view that males can be caring as females, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢They have experienced some form of caring situation, usually in family, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Schools services are doing nothing or little to portray nursing as a possible career for young men, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Only 14% of male are enrolling into nursing 2.5 Views of male nurses in the nursing profession 2.5.1 Introduction Several male nurses have over time expressed their views concerning the nursing profession and in most instances they have reported undergoing a role strain. This has greatly implicated their career ambition and put a question as to whether caring is destined for them (Simpson, 2005). A qualitative study conducted by Simpson (2005), Table 2.4,in order to explore the experience of men in non-traditional occupations ,underscored from 40 in- depth interviews, that majority of men feel discomfort, embarrassment and shame. Many have reported masculinity challenges, including low pay and loss of status. Moreover, in the nursing profession, a good nurse is usually acknowledged by having attributes such as caring, subservience, compassion and kindness (Hicks, 1999). All these attributes are similar to those naturally depicted in females and thus the profession requires an individual with feminine traits. Loughrey,M.(2007), Table 2.4 performed a quantitative, non-experimental descriptive design in order to find out the gender role perception of male nurses, for the first time, in Ireland. Following the analysis of this research, out of 104 male nurses, 78 respondents identified themselves as affectionate, sympathetic and understanding, which corresponds more to female gender roles, and that adoption of the characteristics of the female gender role may not be unusual to male nurses. Hart, K. (2005), Table 2.4, reports on Men in Nursing Survey, that the reality that nursing is traditionally female profession is the main reason why more men arent attracted to the profession, according to 38% of respondents. Other key reasons cited were the stereotype that all men in nursing are gay (29 %), poor pay (15 %), and lack of role models (15%). One respondent said that many people think a man who chooses to spend his career as a staff nurse is a failure or lacks direction. Many others said that male nurses are perceived as men who flunked out of medical school. (Hart, p.48). With these hard-hitting facts, men in nursing view themselves as unsuited for caring task (Wingfield, 2009). Even more, male nurses have reported not once of being victims of homophobic abuse, some of them state that they have been called dreadful names, such as you faggot this while providing nursing care to patients. There are even views of male nurses who feel disadvantaged in life because they decided on a female-dominated profession, which confers a lesser status upon them (McDougall, 1997). The effect of nurse gender on nurse and patient perceptions of nurse caring were explored by Ekstrom, (1999),Table 2.4, using two matched, Likert-like, and 61 items questionnaires. The results collected from the two groups of 145 nurse-patient gender combination, indicated that caring is not particularly female quality, and that nurse caring can be performed by both genders male and female, from the nurse or the patient perspective. However, men find it difficult to demonstrate caring behaviours suggesting avoidance of self-identification with a feminine stereotype. According to these views, it is as if humans are perpetually susceptible, incapable of handling their affairs. Undoubtedly, the preoccupation with the harms and hurts of being a male nurse appears at odds with the evidence of mens masculinity and brisk technological advancement (Furedi, 2003). 2.4 Table The distribution of the studies regarding the views of the male nurses in the nursing profession Author/s and setting Sample and sampling method Research design/Instrument Significant findings Ekstrom,D.N. (1990) U.S.A. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Sample of two 145 nurse-patients combinations, from 5 adult acute care medical centers; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Random sampling of the patients, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Mean age of female nurses 35.5 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Mean age of male nurse 36.3, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Patients had a mean age of 46.4 with a range of 19-82 years. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Two 61 items-matched Likert like questionnaires: 1. The nurse caring questionnaire, 2.The patient caring questionnaire

Comparing John Constables Painting The Cornfield and William Wordswort

Representations of Time: Wordsworth and Constable I do not know how without being culpably particular I can give my Reader a more exact notion of the style in which I wished these poems to be written, than by informing him that I have at all times endeavored to look steadily at my subject; consequently, I hope that there is in these Poems little falsehood of description, and my ideas are expressed in language fitted to their respective importance. Something I must have gained by this practice, as it is friendly to one property of all good poetry, namely, good sense; but it has necessarily cut me off from a large portion of phrases and figures of speech which from father to son have long been regarded as the common inheritance of Poets. -- William Wordsworth, from the Preface to Lyrical Ballads (1800, 1802) It appears to me that pictures have been over-valued; held up by a blind admiration as ideal things, and almost as standards by which nature is to be judged rather than the reverse; and this false estimate has been sanctioned by the extravagant epithets that have been applied to painters, and "the divine," "the inspired," and so forth. Yet in reality, what are the most sublime productions of the pencil but selections of some of the forms of nature, and copies of a few of her evanescent effects, and this is the result, not of inspiration, but of long and patient study, under the instruction of much good sense†¦ †¦Painting is a science, and should be pursued as an inquiry into the laws of nature. Why, then, may not landscape be considered as a branch of natural philosophy, of which pictures are but experiments? -- John Constable, from a lecture at the Royal Institution (June 16, 1836) The styles of John... ...licity and consequently may be more accurately contemplated and more forcibly communicated." Bibliography Goldwater, Robert and Marco Treves (eds.). Artists on Art: from the XIV to the XX Century. New York: Pantheon Books, 1945. Heffernan, James A. W. The Re-Creation of Landscape: A Study of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Constable, and Turner. Hanover: UP of New England, 1985. Helsinger, Elizabeth K. Rural Scenes and National Representation: Britain, 1815-1850. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1997. Kroeber, Karl. Romantic Landscape Vision: Constable and Wordsworth. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975. Paulson, Ronald. Literary Landscape: Turner and Constable. New Haven: Yale UP, 1982. Wolfson, Susan and Peter Manning (eds.). The Longman Anthology of British Literature: The Romantics and Their Contemporaries. Volume 2A. New York: Longman, 1999.

Major problems Facing Christianity Essay

All world religions face unprecedented times in the 21st century. The challenges are diverse and do not have easy solutions. The modern world has seen an amalgamation of global value systems and a similar confluence of socio-political ideologies and philosophies because of advances in information technology and the increased mobility made possible by modern day technology. It is feasible to find a representative of all the world major religions in each country. This has meant that the observance of each religion is no longer a mystical matter left for the convents and monasteries, but has become one that can be easily and readily scrutinized and compared with alternatives – which by the way do not have to be religious. In considering these challenges, those that affect Christianity can represent to a fair degree the struggles the others are facing and can provide a platform for the discussion of these forces. Christianity is by design an expansionist religion. Jesus sent out his disciples with the express command to evangelize all the nations. It is therefore the core duty of every Christian to spread the faith. Globalization is probably the most significant force affecting world religions, both serving and limiting the. Many technological changes took place in the closing half of the 20th century epitomized by the rise of the internet symbolizes the rise of the global village. Substantial changes include increasing ease of commercial travel by jets and high-speed trains, efficient telephone systems and powerful radio’s, the television set and a very efficient and diversified print and electronic media. The world has enjoyed many benefits because of these and indeed, even Christianity has had powerful tools to take its message across the world. Many a televangelist and bible teachers go on air in daily or weekly broadcasts, some with a global audience. Taped messages are downloadable from the internet as podcasts. Even if it is not possible to get the message in real time, it remains available for anyone to get it and watch or listen to it at their convenience. As commercial empires have grown into multinationals, so have efficient delivery networks, which now ensure the timely delivery of CD’s and DVD’s, magazines and newspapers to a global audience. However, these means for dissemination of information have not been available to just the Christian enterprise, they have also available to other establishments that have competing interests, usually commercial, and at times ideological that have employed them to good effect. A Christian watching television is not only watching popular televangelists preach the gospel, but at the comfortable press of a remote button, can watch virtually anything else. These options do not always complement the message heard but at times even go against the Christian value system. A Christian therefore is under immense pressure to conform to the prevailing worldview, as he does not live in a shielded Christian community, but rather in an information razzmatazz for which he has to sift through consistently, if he is to retain and spread the Christian message. As Smart (2000) puts it, â€Å"Even if each tradition stays true to its own message, it will have to operate in a context of this federal world civilization. † Secularization, which is a force to reckon with, has made it more difficult to proselytize. Faith is regarded as a personal issue and hence attempts to discuss faith in non-Christian settings with the hope of making disciples have become an uncomfortable, if not offensive undertaking. Decisions about what faith to ascribe to are made personally and increasingly, privately. After all, isn’t Christianity just one of the options? As Smart (2000) explains, â€Å"Making religion a private matter can also lead to a religion’s becoming just a minor element in a total fabric of living†. Smart (2000) adds, â€Å"Just as a person belongs to the golf club, so that person may join a church.† New age thinking has also made its blow on Christianity. Christianity claims exclusivity of access to salvation, and an exclusive personal God. One of the key new age values is tolerance to all religious beliefs and belief systems. Christianity therefore finds itself in a place where it must find a means of relating with the rest of the world religions, violating the fundamental belief in a single way to salvation. In addition, some of the practices of other religions meet the Christian threshold for classification as idolatry. This just serves to multiply the points of conflict. Further on, the modern world, especially those parts where democracy is dominant, acceptance in matters such as homosexuality is encouraged. This becomes a difficult undertaking for a traditional Christian, as it is excruciating for them to reconcile the practice of the Christian faith with homosexuality and therefore will demand a renouncement of the practice of homosexuality before Christian fellowship can commence. Another area of difficulty for the Christian faith has been the place of women in leadership. Feministic influence has pervaded traditional Christian leadership set up where formal overall leadership was the preserve of men. The Catholic Church still holds to this ideal, while the Anglican Communion has opened its priesthood in women. Protestant congregations and denominations seem to have much more flexibility in the matter, with a large number of women pastors and bishops, in some cases as the overall head of a denomination. Radicalization of faith has brought its share of problems to the world in general. Smart (2000) says, â€Å"Other sects are, in principle or in practice, at odds with society, and seek to change it radically, possibly by rebellion and upheaval. † Many people view Christianity as a western religion. Those who have any disagreements with the west therefore consider Christianity as a legitimate representative of the west. In countries where Christians are in the minority, militant religious fundamentalists have attacked them or their institutions as revenge against the west. State control has also had its punch at the Christian faith. Most of the socialist states such as the former USSR and China have had a very rigid stance against religion in general and Christianity has suffered as one of them. In others, proselytizing is illegal and attracts severe penalty. The spread of the Christian faith remains impeded thus. The Christian message along with that of other world religions has become more difficult to sell in a materialistic society. People do not see why they should wait for a coming glory when they can have the good life now made possible by modernization, which has generally increased the living standards in the world, most pronounced in the western world. â€Å"Then again, the new forms of social and economic organization promised a richer life here and now† (Smart, 2000, p. 138) It will be interesting to see how Christianity evolves in the coming age when each of these forces will have had sufficient time to unleash their full impact.

Women Hobbies

Hobbies Preferred By The Women Can you imagine the women walking into each shop in the megamall and try every shoes, clothes, and handbags for 8 hours straight without even feeling tired? Even Haile Gebrselassie, world’s best long-distance runner can’t do that! According to the research done by a group of students from the University of Melbourne, women love to go shopping, grooming, go for a massage or spa, reading, singing, cooking, art &craft and so on. Despite being so passionate about their hobbies, not every woman shares the same hobbies.Although it is regarded as the most favorite’s hobbies, shopping is just one of many hobbies preferred by the women. Shopping is one of the hobbies preferred by the women and is very synonym with women. When I want to talk about shopping, the first thing that will pop out in my head is woman buying things. Although it does sound simple and considered as a light activity, shopping can and will eventually suck out every ounce of your stamina over time and making your legs begging for a massage. However, these creatures from Venus seem not affected by this at all.Most women are so passionate with this hobby till the point where they can eliminate the fatigue just like that even after spending more than 4 hours walking and shopping. Another common hobby shared by most of the women around the world is cooking. Cooking is a wonderful womanly hobby and art that they can enjoy with their loved ones. Women cook for various reasons. Some people just love the taste of good food or they enjoy the time spent cooking together with their love one. While for some women, cooking food has been more than just about feeding one’s body.It is their way to nourish a soul, a relationship, especially with their family members or their loved ones. A hearty meal with family and friends, give them a sense of happiness and appreciation. Sometimes when their family members get into trouble, they will cook, and things someho w seem a little brighter. Most women enjoy reading novels, magazines, newspapers, and also blogs. According to a research made by the popular English newspaper website, www. guardian. co. uk, women enjoy reading as they know how to read properly and with enthusiasm.The new research shows that nearly half of women are avid readers who cannot put a book down once they begin it and who reliably get through a long list of titles in an average year. Women enjoy reading, especially romance novels. It excites them to read the love stories with the unlimited possibilities of what might happen next in the stories. It also gives them a sense of tranquility, a feeling of relaxation when they read. Women also feel that by reading, they are becoming smarter as it helps them in critical thinking skills and the increasing amount of vocabularies.In conclusion, most women usually prefer simple hobbies that are fun and relaxing. Hobbies like shopping, cooking, and reading are widely practiced and enj oyed by many woman although some prefer tougher and more challenging hobbies like mountain climbing, horse-riding, and bungee jumping. Every hobby have their own benefits and it is up to the women to experiment and choose wisely on what they would love to do in order to fill up their time with useful and fun activities.

Choosing a Non

Choosing a Non In this paper, I will briefly set up Callicott’s project by highlighting his main arguments in his article. Further, I will argue that Callicott is right in preferring the Hume/Darwin/Leopold Land Ethic value theory for environmental ethics over Theism and Holistic Rationalism. Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Choosing a Non-Anthropocentric Value Theory for Environmental Ethics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More I will do this by arguing that human activities cause major environmental destructions and thus, man must have ‘land ethics’ so as to preserve the biotic community. This can only be achieved if human beings accept to be mere members of biotic community and stop using land as ‘their’ commodity. In his article, â€Å"Non-Anthropocentric Value Theory and Environmental Ethics, Callicott starts by informing that the implication of the term ‘environmental ethics’ va ries considerably. As such, certain authors analyze environmental ethics as a function of existing philosophical thoughts in connection to the environment while others present it as an exceptional ethical entity. According to Callicott (300), when environmental ethics is taken to be more hypothetical than an applied discipline, then, most important philosophical task for environmental ethics is the development of non-anthropocentric value theory. ‘Anthropocentric value theory’ is described as any conjecture that consigns natural values to mankind and views other living organisms as important creatures that enhance human survival (Callicott 299). Therefore, the application of utilitarian calculus to determine the degree of correctness or unfairness of acts that have certain implications on the environment is undoubtedly anthropocentric. On the other hand, non-anthropocentric theories view all living things as equal beings. Non-anthropocentric theories contest the convic tion that only humans can enjoy intrinsic values. One such theory is ‘animal liberation theory’ (ethical hedonism) which is highly convectional. It is said to be conventional since it only has a slight variation from the condemned anthropocentric and utilitarian theories. It only calls for reliable implementation of anthropocentric theories. Its pros squabble that the belief that human beings are only creatures that undergo soreness and gratification was not included in the original ideologies of utilitarian theories. Advertising Looking for term paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, the tribulations incurred from ethical hedonism are the same as those of utilitarianism. As such, animal liberation theorists would permit the obliteration of forests to acquire feed for cattle since trees are unconscious beings. Furthermore, the theory fails to acknowledge the importance of maintain ing equilibrium between species so as to realize a sustainable ecosystem. Callicott also takes time to elaborate on ethical conativism and give his verdict. The theory was coiled from Schweizerian respect for existence. Ethical conativism describes interest using the â€Å"will-to-live† (conatations) and also describes natural values â€Å"in terms of interests†. As such, living organisms possess inherent importance when interests are comprehensibly consigned to them. This theory considers plants in environmental ethics by arguing that, plant, in addition to other life forms, have interests despite the fact that they lack consciousness. Nevertheless, the theory is criticized as it fails to show the distinction between household and untamed animals as well as the importance of marvelous organismic entities. Besides, if the theory is followed to the letter, individuals would be forced to consume dead foods like fruits and vegetables. As a result, Callicott (55) thinks of useful options like theistic axiology as well as holistic realism. According to theistic theories, every living organism is good and it possesses natural values since it’s created by the Almighty God. Accordingly, God gave human beings control over world and therefore, human race should take maximum responsibility for God’s creatures rather than taking advantage of them. Holistic realism views all living organisms as possessing intrinsic values depending on their integrity. Nevertheless, Callicott abandons these theories due to their lack of appeal in scientific world. Thus, he establishes four important attributes of any value theory in regard to environmental ethics. As such, all living things as well as super organismic entities ought to be assigned inherent value and a difference should be established between tamed and untamed animals. In addition, such theories should be in line with modern biology concerning advances in the fields of ecology and evolution. Fur ther, theories of environmental ethics must assign intrinsic values to every component and group found in the ecosystem. Thus, I tend to argue that Callicott’s support for Leopold’s ‘Land Ethics’ deserves credit. The best thing about land ethics is that it cautions human beings against using land as ‘their’ commodity. Instead, it requires man to view land as a community where he belongs so that he can express love and affection to other community members. By respecting the land, man will not interfere with flow of energy between the soil, trees and animals. Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Choosing a Non-Anthropocentric Value Theory for Environmental Ethics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Energy flow is sustained by food chains as well as death and decay of living organisms. The relationship between living things is influenced by evolution and human beings. However, huma n activities are the most catastrophic. Callicott agrees with Leopold’s view that we must have ‘land ethics’ in order to maintain the interactions occurring in the land. By doing this, we accord moral value to the land instead of acknowledging particular members. However, a number of scholars have disputed the rationalization of land ethics. They argue that the author of Land Ethics directly shifted from describing the land to prescribing what human beings ought to do in the land. Here, Callicott may wonder if such individuals read the initial pages of â€Å"A Sand County Almanac†. Their possible reply would be yes but argue that there is no real justification of Leopold’s claims. Though the cons may have a point, Callicott may argue that the book has great arguments supported by evidence resulting from acute observations just as Darwin observed the course of evolution. Callicott would say that such criticisms are uncalled for since Leopold gave mo ral recognition to the land on grounds of ethical attitudes and affection rather than specific characteristics. The opponents may then have some questions; (a) ‘why must human beings preserve the land?’ and (b) what is unique about living things that we should preserve the land? Callicott would like to use common sense and argue that we all know the importance of a healthy environment. Our well being is linked to the well being of the ecosystem. We must show love to the land so that it can have joy and produce food. Otherwise, we shall destroy our own good. Therefore, according to Callicott, the main question should be based on our feelings towards the land rather than basing it on land qualities. This would enable human beings to have moral respect for the entire biotic community and eliminate the disparities between prescriptive and descriptive opinions. However, Callicott opponents may argue that attitudes and emotions are inappropriate bases for environmental ethi cs. More so, there are many individuals who lack affection for biotic factors in any case whatsoever. So, the cons may wonder if Callicot would quit campaigning for environmental conservation if these individuals disregard the principles of land ethics. In this case, Callicott would provide a different case for assigning ethical consideration according to holistic entities. People should realize that interests are not necessarily linked to conscious skills. Advertising Looking for term paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There is an opportunity for non-conscious objects to express their interests as well. It can be argued that respiration is in the interest of young kids even though they do not understand the importance of fresh air in addition to lacking conscious need for the same. As such, even unconscious organisms have a need to fulfill their interests. The children and the animals â€Å"have a good of their own† necessitated by their developmental needs and their interests must be given ethical considerations. The opponents may agree with the explanation of giving moral consideration to holistic entities. However, they may question on how to exercise this moral duty while trying to protect the environment. Why should proponents of land ethics allow killing of ‘other’ over populous biotic factors and save human beings who cause major environmental destruction? As a reply, Callicot would argue that giving moral value on basis of holistic entities should not be used as a basi s of taking away human rights as well as human interests. He would argue that biotic community is just one of the many associations in the land which should be valued. Animals may be killed and people must not be murdered because human community is tighter than human-animal community. Thus, community promise would allow killing of animals only. Callicott support for Leopold’s work is a good step forward. Land ethics may help people to accept their position in the community of biotic system thus enabling them to care for other community members. Through this, the flow of energy in the land will be uninterrupted and this will help man to achieve his goods such as food. The senior rank of humans in the biotic community confers upon them a responsibility of preserving the ecosystem but not to destroy it. Work Cited Callicott, Baird, J. â€Å"Non-Anthropocentric Value Theory and Environmental Ethics†. American Philosophical Quarterly 21.4 (1984): 299-309. Print.

Atlanta essays

Atlanta essays There is a city with many attractions that are both entertaining and educational. One of which is an amusement park with ten roller coasters with names such as Dj vu and Superman-The Ultimate Flight. Although, on the educational side of things there is also a Congress Center and a Civil War Museum within the city limits. In this city you can get free soda at the Coca-Cola factory and learn how soda is made at the SciTrek. After that, you can party with Braves, Falcons, and Thrashers. If you have not guessed it by now, I am referring to the city of Atlanta, Georgia. Today, I will talk to you about Centennial Olympic Park, CNN Center, and Underground Atlanta which are three landmarks in the unique city of Atlanta. The first landmark on our journey through Atlanta is the historic Centennial Olympic Park. The Park boasts a variety of free, fun-filled family activities throughout the year. These activities include Family Fun Days, a Fourth of July Celebration, and a Holiday in Lights Festival complete with an ice skating rink, fountain shows, and much more. This downtown Atlanta gathering place is also a lasting legacy to the 1996 Olympic Games. It has granite from each of the five continents represented in the Games, and sources from the parks official website tell us that 800,000 bricks were used in the construction of the park. The Park is also home to The Fountain of Rings, which is the worlds largest interactive fountain. It utilizes the Olympic symbol of five interconnecting rings. Centennial Olympic Park is very special to the city of Atlanta because of the way it was constructed, its year-round entertainment, and its majestic fountain. Next, just across Marietta Street is CNN Center. When most visitors come to the center they go on the Studio Tour, which the official CNN website tells us can be broken down into four basic parts. The first part of the to...

College Admission Essay

College Admission Essay College Admission Essay Whilewriting admission essay, you should understand that the admission committee wants you to show your writing skills of a college level. It means that you should write in a good English language and be able to use it to persuade the reader. They're not interested in your vocabulary skills, so don't use unusual words. Use the words the meaning of which you understand. They want to see that you understand sentence and paragraph structure and can write a narrative essay from scratch. Admission officers want to see that you know what a narrative essay is. If you don't know what it is, a narrative essay is simply a story which should tell the admissions officer. Your college admission essay should be brief, logical and have a persuasive conclusion. Your admission essay should sound as if you are telling a story. It should be original and bring interesting ideas. Admission essay should be written in a voice that is your own, which means it can have its own syntax and structure. You have the opportunity to express yourself through admission essay writing. Give the admission officer a chance to understand who you are rather than repeat what has been seen in other applications. Of course, every admission officer has his own viewpoint about good college admission essay. However, nobody can argue that excellent grammar, good structure, clarity, and honesty are not the features of the good admission essay. So, if you can reach these main features, your chances to be admitted significantly increase. Read also: Admission Essay Topics You, as college applicant, expected to write an admission essay from scratch. You need to give an answer to the specific question. For example, if your admission essay has to cover your life priorities, make sure to write admission essay only about life priorities, not about experiences from childhood. Write about something you have done, the admissions officers don't want to read about your plans to save the planet from global warming. They want to know your achievements, how you spent last two years and what the most important thing from your perspective. If you are choosing a topic, we can't say which one is good or bad, but be sure the topic about your drug usage or sex life won't impress admission officers. They appreciate humor, but if you're not funny in person, you shouldn't try to be so on paper. In any case, you should have someone else read your essay. It is a good idea to give your admission essay to a teacher or ask professional editor for assistance. Admission Essay Writing Service Admission essay does not have to be perfect, however, it has to be attention getting and impressive. If you are not sure in your ability to achieve these objectives and produce admission essay of premium quality, you are welcome to request professional admission essay writing help at .com. We are attentive to your needs and provide only custom written admission essay! Interesting topics: Pay For Essay Essay Company Lord of the Flies Essay Police Performance Term Paper Little Prince Reaction Paper

Culture and communication in the global hospitality workplace Essay

Culture and communication in the global hospitality workplace - Essay Example Thus, in order to improve the productivity of hotel business, it is necessary to understand the consumers’ needs. It is worth mentioning that in order to overcome the cultural conflicts and misunderstandings, an intellectual training program was introduced in 1960 (Gong, 2008). The primary goal of this intellectual training program was to avoid the clash of different cultural values and norms. The training also helps to improve the performance of employees and efficiency of an organization (Gong, 2008). Contextually, the objective of this essay is to identify the relevancy of culture and communication to the global hospitality workplace. Cultural conflicts occur at instances when people stop communicating with other who belongs from different cultures, which leads to miscommunication or break of further communication. In hospitality industry, the management body requires understanding the varied needs and demands of customers from different cultures, and wherein only good communication skill can help them to increase their understandings. This in turn supports the organization to increase its productivity. However, it is also required for the managers to identify the causes of conflicts and solve those accordingly. The managers should also develop an intellectual communication skill to be successful in the global hospitality market (Gong, 2008). In the hospitality management process, there are four rules to establish intellectual communication skill. One of such rules is that it is necessary to understand the cultural differences. Moreover, it is also needed to describe or evaluate other’s behavior. It is also important to understand the viewpoints of other people. In addition, one should not hesitate to gather information of others and their culture as it reduces the possibility of misinterpretation or miscommunication. Communicating effectively in a hospitality

Basel Core Principles on Developing Countries Essay

Basel Core Principles on Developing Countries - Essay Example The Committee on Banking Regulations and Supervisory Practices (Basel Committee) was established in 1974. The Committee was comprised of the central bank Governors of the Group of Ten countries. These countries in particular are Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. The repercussions of the turmoil in markets and international currency created the need for this congregation. The Basel Committee was tasked to oversee and supervise financial institutions and to issue recommendations and standards on banking laws and regulations. It serves as the forum for cooperation on sound banking practices for member countries. In 1988, the Basel Committee gave birth to Basel Capital Accord, or the 1988 Accord. The 1988 Accord was to serve as the international standard to be followed by financial institutions. This has come to be known as a stabilising instrument in banking institutions that foster cooperation among participating countries. The aim of the 1988 Accord was to give a new framework that will strengthen the stability of the banking system and to make sure that the framework will be fair and consistent in application to various banks to reduce inequality among international banks. It provided a system for capital measurement and stated the minimum requirements for international banking business. The most significant aspect of the 1988 Accord is the provision imposing a regulatory capital requirement. It required the minimum capital-to-asset ratio of financial institutions to equal to at least eight percent (8%) of the risk-weighted assets. Thus, if all of the institutions assets are exposed to 1 00% risk, then its capital at hand must be valued at least 8% of its assets. The changes in the 1988 Accord were proposed in 1999. The proposal aims to formulate a capital framework that has evolved to the needs of the time. Thus, the International Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards: A Revised Framework or the Basel II Accord came upon in June 2004. Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision A remarkable benchmark was made through the Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervisions or the Basel Core Principles. The Basel Core Principles aim to respond to the weaknesses in the banking systems that can threaten countries, regions and even the international community. This document was issued on September 1997 after examinations and studies made by the Basle Committee, the Bank for International Settlements, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Compared to the 1988 Accord, many developing countries participated in the drafting of the Basel Core Principles, like Chile, Thailand, China, Argentina, Brazil and India among others. The Basel Core Principles are made of 25 basic Principles that are supposed to guide the regulatory or public authorities in the countries into implementing or maintaining an effective financial system. These 25 basic Principles are classified into seven sections. Principle 1 deals with the Preconditions for Effective Banking Supervision. Principles 2 to 5 discuss the Licensing and Structure. Principles 6 to 15 break down the Prudential Regulations and Requirements that are suppose

Design a Risk Assessment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Design a Risk Assessment - Assignment Example This risk assessment will therefore be done in order to assess the effect of the expansion plans that was carried out that involved installation of four new wire drawing machines and enlargement of the HCL tank. Even though the company has scheduled risk assessment plans and daily plant machine safety checks, the expansion project falls out of the scope of the scheduled plant assessments that are usually carried out at intervals as the expansion is a new thing in the company hence needing urgent assessment of the risks and how to handle them effectively. The main aim for undertaking this risk assessment is to identify the hazards and risks linked with the expansion work that was done in the wire drawing section and the galvanizing section, analyze the risks and find a solution to them. This assessment to be carried out will be specific in that it will only involve two sections of the plant: wire drawing and GIP section. The hazards in each of the two sections will be identified by four means. The first method of identifying the hazards will be to examine information about the new equipment installed in these two sections (Royer, 2004). The second means will be by consulting the employees and operators who work in these two sections so that they can help identify the potential hazardous situations in their areas of work. The third method will be to determine the potential hazards by examining the work places in the two sections under consideration. The final method will involve brainstorming as a team to help identify and think of the hazards that might be associated with the expansion work. After identifying the hazards, they will be recorded in the Hazard Summary sheet after which risk analysis will be done (Laird & Mccutcheon, 2007). The analysis and assessment done will help in coming up with the ways to counter any hazard that will be identified in the course of this

Marketing practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing practices - Essay Example Marketing of services is a bigger challenge than marketing of products. Products have well defined parameters and the customer can base his decision to some extent on that. Services on the other hand are intangible and relies totally on customer’s needs and finally satisfaction. Hence, the definition of marketing would include customer relationship marketing. The key to success in customer relationship marketing lies on information. Marketing concept has changed in the past decade. It includes market research, brand/product management, public relations, and customer service (Chaffey et al., 2006). It is not more restricted to advertising and sales. Marketing activities have to be designed in coherence with the other activities of the firm for attaining profitability. Today internet marketing and e marketing are the emerging trends, which add to the definition of marketing. Marketing has to be done within the framework of business ethics and the parameters laid down by the local government. Nestle indulged in unethical marketing practices and can hence be called an unsuccessful marketing practice (CEM, 1997). They wanted to market Cerelac while the World Health Assembly emphasized breast feeding upto six months of age. Nestle ignored warnings by Gabon’s government not to advertise Cerelac on the television. They had also been trying to market their products directly through private and government hospitals by offering incentives to the staff. This is an unsuccessful and unethical marketing practice. Market segmentation is important for successful marketing. Consideration has to be given to the age, gender, demographics to derive maximum customer and organizational satisfaction. To provide customer satisfaction, their needs have to be analyzed. Communication and branding are important specially to reach the customers through direct means. Hence, customer orientation is essential. Kotler too defines

A Snapshot of TEXAS Government in My Life Assignment

A Snapshot of TEXAS Government in My Life - Assignment Example I did this by considering three crucial agencies namely the environmental protection agency, Texas health and human services agency and the Texas Commission on Fire Protection Agency. I am walking along the 6th street in Austin, Texas. Everybody is busy in their normal economic activities. While others are in the offices, businesses, schools, and industries, others were just walking around the streets meeting people and other under shades holding small meetings (Duncan9). This created an interesting scenario bearing in mind that all these groups of people are doing constructive things based on the nature of their jobs. One can be sure that I was curious in understanding how everybody was executing his or her mandates in a manner that will satisfy the authority. This triggered my movement to various government offices and just I could just watch when in the queue the way citizens were being attended to. I also welcomed myself in various forums and meetings that were being run by the government agencies. They helped to attain a broad picture of how these agencies do things. Similarly, I gained an opportunity to interact with the citizens who were the attendees of those meetings and the offices. I also managed to interact with the officials of these agencies, and this gave me an opportunity to understand their roles, policies and how they fitted in the government’s structure (Duncan 19). I, therefore, gained a golden opportunity of interacting with the main stakeholders of these government agencies and hence understood very well how service delivery was being done. My interaction with their clients helped me to judge their service delivery as well as the importance of their jobs to the society. In my snapshot, I was interested in environmental protection, Texas health and human services and the Texas Commission on Fire Protection agencies. The environmental agency is a state agency whose mission is protecting the human health.

Partition coefficient log p (scientific lab report) Essay

Partition coefficient log p (scientific lab report) - Essay Example Thru partition, coefficient was expressed with the concentration in the non-aqueous or lipophilic phase as the numerator. This was expressed in a formula â€Å"P = Coil / Cwater.† In that context, the drug’s absorption can be predicted using the partition coefficient. In logarithmic partition, coefficient values are calculated to determine the solute’s hydrophocity, lipophilicity and it’s anent absorbability. Since body membranes are usually impermeable to foreign ionic species, only un-ionized drug molecules can partition into the membrane. Hence, the lipophilicity correlates with the state of the drug including its acidity or pH level. Note that pH levels vary in all part of the body which implies that drugs partitioned in a specific part will also have diverse un-ionized states.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Partition coefficient’ also determines the acid dissociation constant or Ka. This can be calculated using the equation of Henderson-Hasselbalch where the  "product of hydrogen ion ([H+]) and ionized acid ([A-]) concentrations† is divided by the â€Å"concentration of unionized acid ([HA]). This formula is expressed with the following:  Ka = [H+][A-] / [HA]   This experiment aims to determine the different pHs and degree of ionization affected the partition coefficient of salicylic acid. ... The combination such three equations would result to   1/P’ = 1/P + Ka/[H+]P   of which P is partition coefficient   Ka is dissociation constant   CO is total concentration in oil phase; and CW is total concentration in aqueous phase. Researchers will also obtain the â€Å"absorbance values† using different concentration of salicylic acid because this is relevant in setting a calibration curve and a graph to reflect the concentration in the aqueous phase. Moreover, a graph plotting 1/P’ against the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration (1/[H+]) yielded a line with an intercept of 1/P and a slope of Ka/P. Using the partition coefficient and the dissociation constant, the pKa was calculated.   Methodology This experiment comprised of two parts:  (a) determination of salicylate concentration to produce a calibration curve  and (b) salicylate concentration measured in solutions of four different pHs. a. Salicylate Concentration Determination to Produ ce a Calibration Curve   It aims to resolve the absorbance of salicylate solution at different concentrations to produce a calibration curve.  As part of the method, researcher will use five test tubes. Test Tube 1 will contain 6mL of water which will be used as the blank solution to keep the calorimeter at zero. Other test tubes will contain 5mL of water which is added to 2mL of ferric nitrate solution. Further, 1mL of different concentrations of salicylate was added to test tube 1; 0.00125M for test tube 2; 0.0025M for test tube 3; 0.00375M for test tube 4; and 0.005M for test tube 5. With calorimeter set at a wavelength of 624nm, the absorbance of each test tube of salicylate solution was determined by pouring solution in cuvettes and inserting them into the calorimeter. Data

A Snapshot of TEXAS Government in My Life Assignment

A Snapshot of TEXAS Government in My Life - Assignment Example I did this by considering three crucial agencies namely the environmental protection agency, Texas health and human services agency and the Texas Commission on Fire Protection Agency. I am walking along the 6th street in Austin, Texas. Everybody is busy in their normal economic activities. While others are in the offices, businesses, schools, and industries, others were just walking around the streets meeting people and other under shades holding small meetings (Duncan9). This created an interesting scenario bearing in mind that all these groups of people are doing constructive things based on the nature of their jobs. One can be sure that I was curious in understanding how everybody was executing his or her mandates in a manner that will satisfy the authority. This triggered my movement to various government offices and just I could just watch when in the queue the way citizens were being attended to. I also welcomed myself in various forums and meetings that were being run by the government agencies. They helped to attain a broad picture of how these agencies do things. Similarly, I gained an opportunity to interact with the citizens who were the attendees of those meetings and the offices. I also managed to interact with the officials of these agencies, and this gave me an opportunity to understand their roles, policies and how they fitted in the government’s structure (Duncan 19). I, therefore, gained a golden opportunity of interacting with the main stakeholders of these government agencies and hence understood very well how service delivery was being done. My interaction with their clients helped me to judge their service delivery as well as the importance of their jobs to the society. In my snapshot, I was interested in environmental protection, Texas health and human services and the Texas Commission on Fire Protection agencies. The environmental agency is a state agency whose mission is protecting the human health.

Health Care Project Essay Example for Free

Health Care Project Essay Team B has chosen prescription drugs for our health care reform project and how our current economic status is influenced. We will give ideas and solutions to show how to decrease the drug pricing. Ways that can be implemented toward a solution. Pharmaceutical company’s need to amend their business practices from a high profit, low development model to a moderate profit, moderate to high development model. Structures and regulation that will explain the competition, barriers to entry, and regulations. Taking a look at drug pricing from different perspective, like cost, research, and development, marketing, and the manufacturing of pharmaceutical drugs. The Monopoly of pricing who is involved, and the curves associated with it. Price discrimination how it changes who’s involved and what the criteria are for groups as well as pricing for individuals. How cost of co pays differ from brand names to generic and how the drug formulates come into play. How to make the system work for everyone that will amount to higher than just a 30-day supply, pharmacy assistance programs, local charity programs, and low income opportunities. Better ways to enforce existing legislation, vote in new legislation, and regulate prices across the board. The above affects the insured and non-insured American’s. For most American households, paying for health care to include prescription drugs and medical bills has been one of the hardest financial strains out there. According to a report published by (Consumer Reports, 2012), many have cut back on other household expenses or taken potentially dangerous measures with their health to afford their medications. The most affected population is the working-age Americans who do not have prescription drug insurance coverage. More than half of the people who completed the survey requested by Consumer Reports took one or more prescriptions had to reduce other household expenses or make changes in how the general population manage their finances. These reductions included how much they spend on their groceries, entertainment, activities with the family, and using their credit cards to purchase medications. The problem  was more severe with younger people than elderly people age 65 and older. â€Å"84 percent of them said they had to resort to such measures† (Consumer Reports, 2012) as previously listed. Prescription drugs or better yet the cost of prescription drugs is a discussion in the country of importance. The rise of the cost of prescription drugs is of important to many people in the United States and plays a huge role in the economics of health care. The elevated pricing of prescription drugs has become a focal point of politics and in need of some governance. Even though healthcare and prescription drugs are seen as a private sector issue, the discussion of some socialist measures put into place is a definite need for the economy. Some of those ideas include price-capping expensive drugs and even importing drugs from Canada. Healthcare and prescription drugs have been privatized; however, the government has a huge influence on them both. According to the Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services, the government, including state, and federal, has contributed more the 2.7 trillion in 2011. This shows that we have hidden, or more politically correct, blurred the view of a socialist healthcare system. The currently health care system with health care reform has caused confusing for co nsumers. Many people are struggling to pay for the high cost of medication they are on. Some of the patients have to take a different type of medication, which is called alternative medication because their insurance denied paying for it in addition; the process to get approval from insurance takes longer time and more paperwork back and forth from doctors and insurance companies. In reality, health care consumers are the victims, they suffer from their medical illnesses, and they suffer for the high cost of prescription drugs. Health care reform in theory is helping more than forty million people to have health coverage, the demand curve shifts to the right. The important matter at the present time is the supply to cover that many people to have a quality care whereas the economy is gradually recovering. The unemployment rate is not changing much, it is still relatively high. When the prescription drug cost much of our income, seeking for other solution becomes a must do from consumers, they tend to dismiss their prescriptions or buying medication from online market, w hich may cause bad health than curing purpose.

EU Instruments for Pre-Accession Assistance

EU Instruments for Pre-Accession Assistance Regional Development INTRODUCTION Cohesion Policy of the European Union aims to reduce economic and social differences between the Member States of the Union by supporting and encouraging regional development. The Treaty of Rome and the Single European Act promote decreasing differences in the regional development while regional policy provides investments for necessary restructuring in the less developed regions and support for infrastructure development, increase of employment, and stimulation of industry. To finance projects that contribute to the regional development cohesion and structural funds are used, which account for a third of the common budget of the European Union (Chalmers Dellmuth, 2014). The key objectives of regional development are regional competitiveness and employment, and european territorial cooperation (European Commission). The effort are focused on facilitating increased growth and convergence of the least developed member states and regions with the goal of increasing the regional competitiveness and thus improving cooperation with other European regions. In order to promote regional development, the European Union has secured additional financial assistance for member states through various funds. Cohesion Fund is intended for countries which need to meet the convergence criteria. The European Regional Development Fund, as one of the main financial instruments of the EUs cohesion policy, and European Social Fund, Europes main tool for promoting employment and social inclusion, are called structural funds and are aimed at strengthening economic and social cohesion in the European Union and at the reduction of differences in development between the regions. Kyriacou and Rocca-Sagales (2011) found that the Structural Funds reduced regional disparities in the period from 1995 to 2006. Beugelsdijk and Eijffinger (2005) and Ederveen (2006) also confirmed positive impact of structural funds on consumption and growth of GDP per capita, but only in countries with developed institutions. Effect of the use of structural funds to decrease regional differences is potentially reversed if transfers are above a certain limit (about 1.6% of gross domestic product). This has implications on the desirable allocation of resources in future, especially since, in the last programming period (2007-20113), transmissions to all new member states except Cyprus and Malta exceeded the given threshold. Popa (2012) points out that although there are examples of good practice of the use of EU funds, they often represent more a financial burden then they truly serve as a mean of reducing regional disparities, which is their goal. Reforms of funding in the new programming period 2014-2020 have the potential to improve the efficiency of the use of the funds, but significant effects of their use cannot be expected in the absence of structural reforms, given the constraints in monitoring the use of funds in different countries and the difficulties in establishing irregularities and potential illegal use of funds (Chalmers Dellmuth, 2014). Most authors agree that after 20 years of implementation of the EU Cohesion Policy its effectiveness remains questionable (Bachtler et al., 2015). In fact, in theory, the allocation of EU funds needs to be designed so to ensure that the poorer regions receive more funds. In practice, the allocation and the distribution of funds was under the influence of lobbying, the unwillingness of regional authorities to absorb funds, as well as of the lack of resources and incentives for the European Union to question the political motives for the selection of projects at the local level (Dellmuth Stoffel, 2012). 1. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FUNDING European Regional Policy was adopted by the European Commission in 1965, followed by the creation of the Directorate-General for Regional Policy in 1968. In 1972, Regional Policy was recognized as an essential factor in strengthening the Community (European Commission).Regional policy has focused from its very start on promoting balanced regional development. The resources from the cohesion and structural funds are to be used primarily to minimize the differences in development between regions of the European Union as well as differences in the standard of living of citizens of these regions. Among the main objectives of the regional policy in the programming period from 2000 to 2006 were the development and structural adjustment of those regions whose GDP per capita was lower than 75% of the EU average, the economic and social conversion of areas facing structural difficulties and adjustment and modernization of the national policies and educational systems, as well as training and employment. For the financing of the regional development policy the European Commission established the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), whose objective is the elimination of regional disparities and promotion of a stable and sustainable development, the European Social Fund (ESF), aimed at developing human resources and employment, financial instrument for Fisheries guidance (Financial instrument for Fisheries guidance FIFG), whose goal is a balanced water resources management and development of the competitive infrastructure, and European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF), whose goal is to support the Common agricultural policy and the improvement of agricultural structures and rural development. From 2007 to 2013, the number of funds was reduced to three (ERDF, ESF and the Cohesion Fund), and the emphasis was placed on the less developed regions, to achieve greater growth and higher employment rate. The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) aims to strengthen economic and social cohesion in the European Union. European Social Fund (ESF) aims to increase employment and increase opportunities for finding a job in the European Union. The Cohesion Fund is intended for Member States whose gross national product per capita is less than 90% of the Unions and aims to support economic and social development, and helps to bring stability to the economic system of the less developed countries. Given that the three main objectives of EU regional policy are convergence, regional competitiveness and employment and European territorial cooperation, Cohesion Fund primarily supports convergence and, although it is the subject to the same rules of programming, management and monitoring as well as the structural funds and plays a similar role, the Fund has been primarily used to provide means for adjusting the national economies of the countries which had decided to introduce a common currency, and to relieve national budgets of the poorer member states. Investments in the areas of transport, environmental protection, achieving energy efficiency and use of renewable energy sources are usually financed from the Cohesion Fund. For example, through the four national programs for Croatia, 10.74 billion Euro from the European structural and investment funds has been allocated in the period from 2014 to 2020. Croatia has a total budget of 12.67 billion Euro for investments into research and innovation, employment, education and training of employees, as well as for social inclusion projects, project in the public administration and civil society, as well as infrastructure projects and projects related to the protection of the environment Protection (http: / /ec.europa.eu, 2016). The management of the Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund is based on the principles of programming, concentration, co-financing and partnership. Programming is the process of allocation of structural funds in accordance with the defined objectives and criteria over a certain period of time. Concentration involves directing funds to where they are most needed. Co-financing means that part of the investment has to be obtained from domestic sources, while partnership implies close cooperation between Member States and the European Commission. Since the implementation of the Cohesion policy requires developed institutional framework, each state chooses one of three approaches for the implementation of the Cohesion policy differential approach, which is characterized by the separating the structures for the implementation of cohesion policy from the regular government bodies (for example, The Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom), the unique approach, whereby the funds are directed through the national, or regional ministries and agencies (for example Austria, Spain, parts of Germany and most new Member States) and the combined approach, which represents a combination of the previous two approaches (for example Finland, France and Italy). The choice depends on the existing administrative arrangements and levels of funding. 2. INSTRUMENT FOR PRE-ACCESSION ASSISTANCE Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance ( IPA) is the program for the countries which are in the process of accession to the Union. Pre-accession funds are intended to facilitate the economic and social transformation, which are included in the conditions for the admission to the Union. From 2000 to 2006, countries in the process of accession to the EU had access to financial instruments called PHARE (Pologne et Hongrie Aide à ¡ Restructuration Economique), ISPA (Instrument for Structural Policies for pre-Accession), SAPARD (Special pre-accession assistance for Agriculture and Rural Development), and CARDS (Community assistance for Reconstruction, Development and Stabilisation). From 2007 to 2013 total IPA budget amounted to 11.468 billion Euro (narr.gov.rs). Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance consists of five components (narr.gov.rs): Transition Assistance and Institution Building. The first component of the IPA aims to provide support in the process of accession to the European Union, especially in meeting the criteria and standards imposed by the accession, transposition of the legislation and, in particular, the strengthening of the institutional capacity. Cross-border cooperation. The objective of this component is to promote good neighborly relations and regional cooperation between traditionally less developed regions in the countries which engage in the joint cross border projects; Regional Development. The third IPA component aims to improve economic and social cohesion through the development of the transport infrastructure, particularly the development of national transport networks and trans-European networks, protection of the environment including policies such as waste management, management of water supply and waste water, as well as the monitoring of air quality, the rehabilitation of polluted areas, achievement of energy efficiency and renewable energy sources, and the development of regional competitiveness by fostering entrepreneurship and employment. The development of human resources. This component aims to contribute to economic and social cohesion and to achieving the priorities of the European Employment Strategy in the areas of employment, education, training and social inclusion. Rural Development. This component provides support for sustainable agricultural and rural development by improving market efficiency and facilitating the adoption of the EU standards, provides support for the establishment of producer groups and investments in the processing and marketing of agricultural and fishery products, as well as the implementation of best practices in the field of environmental protection and improvement in agriculture and development of rural infrastructure. All five components of IPA can be used by the country with the status of candidate country and which has implemented decentralized system of management of EU funds (Decentralized Implementation System DIS), while the potential candidate countries and those candidate countries which have not yet accredited DIS have access to funds from the first and second components of IPA (narr.gov.rs). Management of EU funds under Decentralized Implementation System is approved after meeting criteria and conditions defined by the European Commission. The first component of the Instrument for Pre-accession assistance is related to the transition assistance and the development of institutions, and it decreases as the countrys economy develops and gets closer to the European standards, practices and the membership of the Union. The second component of the IPA is related to Cross-Border Cooperation. Third IPA Component is a predecessor of the Cohesion Fund, while the fourth and fifth IPA components are precursors of the todays structural funds. IPA funds are not used exclusively for the implementation of institutional projects, but are also used for the preparation of the country for the accession through the implementation of prescribed objectives, principles. IPA beneficiary countries are divided into two categories (ec.europa.eu): Candidate countries for EU (Turkey, Albania, Montenegro, Serbia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) are eligible for all five components of IPA; Potential candidate countries in the Western Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo under UN Security Council Resolution 1244/99) are eligible only for the first two components. Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance IPA II 2014-2020 was established by the European Parliament and the Council Regulation no. 231/2014 of 11 March 2014 and applied retroactively from January 1, 2014. IPA II is the successor of the IPA for the period 2014-2020 and has a budget of 11.7 billion. Users of IPA II are: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey (http://ec.europa.eu). IPA II Regulation determines that the European Commission and the beneficiary of IPA II are to conclude general agreements on the implementation of the aid, which defines the rules for the implementation of the Unions financial assistance under the IPA II, primarily in relation to the management of IPA II, including the rules of programming, implementation, financial management, monitoring, control and audit, reporting and protection of financial interests. One of the major changes in the structure of the IPA II, which, instead of the 5 components comprising the IPA I, is the introduction of the policy areas. Policy areas within the IPA II are (PejoviĆ¡ et al., 2014): Reforms as part of preparations for EU membership and institutional and capacity building; Socio-economic and regional development; Employment, social policy, education, promotion of gender equality and human resource development; Agriculture and rural development; Regional and territorial cooperation. The most important innovation in the IPA II is its strategic focus. Each country should prepare a specific strategic planning document for the period of 7 years, which will enable faster integration, reform and development programs, and ensures a focus on the priorities in terms of regional cooperation. IPA II aims to facilitate the reforms in the context of pre-defined sectors. These sectors include areas closely related to the enlargement strategy, as well as democracy and governance, the rule of law, growth and competitiveness. This approach promotes structural reforms that are expected to help the governments to transform the given sectors and to successfully conduct harmonization with EU standards. In this way, the European Commission wishes to ensure the efficiency of the fund, sustainability and their focus on results. IPA II focuses on measuring the effects and monitoring the realization of expected results. IPA II aims at achieve four specific objectives. The overall objective is to support the beneficiary countries in adopting and implementing the political, institutional, legal, administrative, social and economic reforms that are required from them in order to conform with the values of the European Union and to ensure gradual alignment with the rules, standards, policies and practices for achieving full membership in the EU. The specific objectives of IPA II are (PejoviĆ¡ et al., 2014): Support for political reform: strengthening democracy and the rule of law, including an independent and efficient judiciary; promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, respect for the rights of minorities, including LGBT people, promoting gender equality, prohibition of discrimination and fostering tolerance, and freedom of the media and cultural diversity; regional cooperation and good neighborly relations; the promotion of reconciliation and confidence building measures; the fight against corruption and organized crime; strengthening public administration and good governance at all levels; capacity building measures to improve law enforcement, border management and implementation of migration policies; the development of civil society; improving social dialogue and strengthening the capacity of the social partners. Support the economic, social and territorial development with focus on smart, sustainable and inclusive growth: reaching the EU standards in the economy, including a functioning market economy and fiscal and economic governance. Economic reforms are necessary in order to face competitive pressure and market forces within the EU, and which at the same time contribute to the achievement of objectives in the field of social rights and environmental protection; promotion of employment, mobility of workers and the development of human capital; improving social and economic inclusion, in particular of minorities and vulnerable groups, including people with disabilities, refugees and displaced persons; fostering an inclusive and integrated education system and the protection and restoration of cultural heritage; development of physical capital, including infrastructure improvements and connecting with the networks of the EU and the region; strengthening research, technological development a nd innovation capacity. Strengthening the capacity of recipient countries at all levels to fulfill the obligations arising from the membership in the EU by supporting progressive alignment with the EU acquis and their adoption and implementation, including preparation for managing structural and cohesion funds as well as funds intended for agriculture and rural development. Strengthening of regional and territorial cooperation to help beneficiary countries. 3. EFFECTS OF FINANCING During the programming period 2007- 2013, over 80% of the budget of the Cohesion Fund was allocated in the 100 poorest regions, with about 170 million people or one third of the EU population. The remaining 18.5% of the money is distributed to other regions in the Union (http://www.euractiv.com, 2012). According to the European Commission, in the next programming period 2014-2020 less than 70 regions will automatically qualify for the funds that are used to finance the convergence, as they have GDP per capita below 75% of the EU average. Regions in transition those who have a GDP per capita between 75% and 90% of the EU average will get less funds, but still can count on continued support from the Structural Funds (http://www.euractiv.com, 2012 ).   Ã‚   Figure 1: Regions by the development level in the programming periods 2007-2013 and 2014-2020. Source: Chalmers Dellmuth, 2014 In the 2014-2020 programming period it is expected that 25% of structural funds will be allocated in less developed regions (red in Figure 1), 40% in regions in transition (yellow in Figure 1), and 52% in the developed regions (blue in Figure 1. ). As for the Cohesion Fund, the funds from it will continue to support the development of member countries with GDP per capita of less than 90% of the EU-27 average, but will primarily be allocated to support investments in projects related to environmental protection and the development of transport. Part of the funds from the Cohesion Fund will focus on the financing of transport networks in Europe. Given that the capacity to absorb depends on the institutional factors, both in the EU and in the Member States (Georgescu, 2010; Voinea, et al, 2010), but also on the ability of regional authorities to co-finance projects and provide administrative support (Zaman and Georgescu, 2009), the possible effects of the use of structural funds are difficult to predict. According to the research, structural funds can boost GDP growth in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe from 0.1. to 0.7% per annum (Zaman Georgescu, 2009). Analyses of the effects of the use of the funds in the programming period 2000-2006 show that there has been some reduction in the differences between countries in GDP per capita, while in some regions growth was recorded. Zaman and Georgescu (2009) found that the structural funds boost export growth, and that in some cases, like in Romania, they led to economic growth, despite relatively low absorption capacity. Positive impact was also made in Austria, Belgium and France. However, according to Becker (2012), countries with low levels of education, weak institutions and poor governance did not make equally successful use of the funds. Thus, receiving more support from the Structural Funds does not necessarily mean development. For example, Pisani-Ferry et al (2011) found that inadequate institutional framework in Greece to be a reason for the inability of its government to efficiently use the funds assigned to it. CONCLUSION Theoretically, objectives of the regional policy of the European Union necessitate the existence of the financial support for the less developed regions to achieve the desired growth. However, in practice, during the distribution and the use of the funds many problems were encountered. Access to funds for underdeveloped regions did not lead to the desired growth, primarily because of the inability of the governments to use the allocated funds due to weakness of the institutions and low capacity. In more developed regions, the effects of the funds were much more significant. Changes in the programming period 2014-2020 are expected to solve part of the problems identified in the previous periods. However, declining return on invested funds and high dependence of a large number of the regions from external funding sources continue to threaten the achievement of the basic objectives that these funds are meant to support. Although raw data show that the Structural Funds have not always been successful in fighting the problems at all levels and in all countries. However, as many people are still unemployed in the EU, and there are full member countries whose GDP is still well below the EU average, the Structural Funds are necessary. The same goes for the Cohesion Fund, as it ensures faster accession of the candidate countries. These funds were designed to reduce the inequalities in the regional developments, and although they might not have been efficient in all cases, they certainly supported the growth in some regions, provide incentives for other regions to improve their capacity to access the funds and accelerate the growth. REFERENCES   Ã‚   Bachtler, J., Begg, I., Charles, D., Polverari, L. (2015) THE LONG TERM ACHIEVEMENTS OF EU COHESION POLICY, 1989-2012. Challanges for he new cohesion policy 2014-2020. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union Becker, S.O.(2012) EU Structural Funds: Do They Generate More Growth? dostupno na: https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/International%20Economics/1212bp_becker.pdf Beugelsdijk, M., Eijffinger, S. (2005), The Effectiveness of Structural Policy in the European Union: an Empirical Analysis for the EU-15 in 1995-2001, Journal of Common Market Studies 43: 37-51. Chalmers, A.W., Dellmuth, L.M. (2014). Whz Europes new cohesion policy is unlikely to enhance effectiveness of EU structural and investments funds. Dostupno na: http://councilforeuropeanstudies.org/critcom/why-europes-new-cohesion-policy-is-unlikely-to-enhance-the-effectiveness-of-eu-structural-and-investment-funds/ Dellmuth, L.M., Stoffel, M.F. (2012) Distrinutive Politics and intergovernmental transfers: the local allocation of European Union Structural Funds. 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